Human Excellence: Iliad, Genesis and Meno

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Human Excellence Iliad, Genesis and Men.

The concept of the perfect man or woman has always existed throughout the history of humankind. In the three classical texts of the Iliad, Genesis and Meno, there are portrayals of the ideal human qualities, as reflections on their specific culture and times. It would be of great interest to examine what exactly these qualities are, and in what respects they differ or are similar. If there is a single concept of human perfection then there must be a definite set of qualities which define it. It is the goal of this paper to discover whether such an ideal exists, and if it does, then to ultimately reveal what constitutes it.

But how can we tell in each of these texts what is held as the human ideal? In the case of the Iliad it is that which is portrayed as glorius and magnificent, such as a victory scene after battle, or a warrior gloating over the body of his fallen opponent. In Meno it is whatever Socrates and Meno agree to be virtue. For Genesis it is slightly more complicated, due to the unique relationship between God and the humans over which he has supreme dominion. Since God created man in his own image (Genesis.17) he obviously wants humans to resemble him in everyway. Thus it can be said that the qualities shown by the characters upon whom god looks favorably are those which constitute human excellence in this text.

A brief overview of the three texts is in order. The Iliad has a central theme of war and human conflict, with the concept of the war hero being prevalent. Genesis takes place in a primeval world of essentially naive humans being watched over by God. In Meno, the setting is an ancient, yet civilised, society in which there are sophisticated citizens and institutions.

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These different backgrounds, as expected, nurture different opinions on the human ideal. In the Iliad it is highly regarded to be skillful in combat and to be able to subjugate a foe by force, whereas in Genesis there is no mention of any organised fighting at all. In Meno the only reference to combat is made only in passing when Socrates mentions that the Thessalians were admired for their horsemanship(Meno,70b).

It is inevitable that when such an emphasis is placed on the ability to fight, the role of woman is significantly marginalised. Women, being the physically weaker sex, were naturally not expected to contribute directly to fighting. (Athena and Hera do not count as they are goddessed, not normal women.) Consequently, the female ideal differs totally from the male ideal; she is expected to be a good wife and mother, and bear her husband many sons, presumably to keep alive the honour of the father on the battlefield long after he is gone. The women in the Iliad derive their sense of worth from their relation to the warrior in their lives - son, husband or father - since they have no separate identity of their own.

The women in Genesis appear to fulfill much the same role - as mothers and wives - although they are given greater prominance. Sarah, perhaps the closest to the ideal, embodied the few most important qualities of womanhood; she was obedient, utterly faithful, and loved her husband. There is a a slight change of emphasis from spiritual to practical in the Meno, where the model woman must manage the home well, preserve its possessions, and be submissive to her husband (Meno,71e).

On the topic of gender it is beyond dispute that in each of the three texts the plot revolves around male characters. Thus in the search for human excellence in these texts it is assumed that that the qualities ascribed as such are without reference to female characters, unless specifically mentioned, as in the above paragraphs.

Returning to the topic of primary (male) characteristics, courage in battle is of also great importance in the context of the Iliad. It is a prerequisite for a warrior as without courage it would not be possible to face the enemy, much less possible death. Hektor exemplifies this ideal when he choses to remain outside the walls of Troy to front Achilleus, despite his premonition that he is certain to die. But the trait of bravery is not necessarily restricted to the battlefield - it has applications to a wide range of human endeveours. When god orders Abram to depart for the promised land Abram shows courage to face to the unknown. Joseph must have had great bravery and resolve to have survived the emotional trauma of being betrayed by his brothers and then sold as a slave. In Meno courage is mentioned, but appears to be of little significance, perhaps because of the lack of circumstances in a relatively civilized society which would require the possesion of such a quality.

The warriors of the Iliad fight to obtain honor or fame, which is very important to them. Social standing is based chiefly on ability in battle, the number of soldiers commanded, family reputation, and past record of battle successes or failures. A warriors goal in life is the quest for enduring fame. This is illustrated when Hektor, before he rides out to battle, cradles his infant son and his foremost wish is for him to one day be a great warrior. In this scene Hektor is fitted in his mighty armor, a sight which scares the innocent child, and readers are reminded of how much the warriors ideal is distorted from what is natural and beautiful.

In Meno the pursuit of fame is notably less stressed. Meno says that virtue consists of being able to manage public affairs (Meno.71e), which implies that carrying out ones duty is more important than individual success. Genesis appears to completely disregard fame, and there is emphasis on duty as well. The duty of a father to provide for his family, and the devotion of wife to take care of the family, are evident in the extensive familial structures portrayed.

When discussing duty, Socrates and Meno talk about not only doing the task well, but doing it moderately and justly (Meno7.b). They think that fairness and honesty are important virtues. In the Iliad all the warriors respect an unwritten code of conduct which governs how they are to behave both on and off the battlefield. For example they are not allowed to attack women or children, and a certain degree of mercy is expected to be shown towards wounded or defenseless participants in battle. It is rather ironic that Genesis, about the education of humankind, appears to regard such values with contempt. After Jacob tricks his brother Esau out of his father Noahs blessing, he receives no punishment from God. The fact that this event is a key part of the storyline without which the story would not be possible only adds to the significance of Gods condoning of dishonest behavior. In general the actions of God can be viewed as unfair and bully-like, and his decisions appear to be arbitrary, or in response to a whim.

Much of what is taught to the characters in Genesis has to do with faith in God. He expects humans to have total faith and trust in him and his words. Noah walked with God (Genesis.6) because he obeyed god without question when he told him to build an ark. It appears to be one of Gods main aims to make humans trust him, and therefore, by the definition set, faith is something good. In the Iliad the warriors are heavily reliant on the gods to grant them favors and help them to win battles. The fact that their trust in the gods actually yields them rewards identifies this as a favorable characteristic. Even Socrates and Meno declare piety a virtue. So far faith in a divinity has been the only value to which the characters of all three texts ascribe.

Out of the three texts Meno is the most practical one in that it addresses the topic of human excellence directly. Thus it would be of use to examine come of the comments made by Socrates and Meno on the topic of virtue. Meno proposes that virtue is to desire beautiful things and have the power to acquire them.(Meno.77b) He goes on to reason that since anyone can desire beautiful things but not everybody is capable of securing them, then this idea of virtue can be simplied to the capacity to acquire good things (Meno.78c). In the context the Meno this ideal of human excellence is to be able to obtain wealth, health, honors, or respectable offices.

Expanding this concept to the Iliad, it can be seen that the pursuit of good things is the universal motivating force behind the actions of the characters. Agammenon desires the slave-girl Chryseis and has the power to take her away from Achilleus, so he does. The individual warriors enter battle with the desire to obtain honor and fame, but it is only those who succeed whom are portrayed in a positive light. In Genesis the essentially simple characters have their unique little desires; the woman in Eden wants to taste the fruit from the Forbidden Tree, Sarah wants to have children, and Jacobs sons want to kill their brother Joseph. As with the last example, this universal desire and ability to do things is not necessarily good. Simply having the power to achieve ones personal goals does not require that those goals are good at all. Thus, it is the power, not what the power allows for, that is the admirable quality.OOOOOOO.courage in battle, and athletic prowess are held in high regard in the Iliad, whereas in the Genesis such an ideal is not mentioned at all. Ownership of special weapons and armor bring pride to the bearer and their importance is reflected in the detailed descriptions of the crafted beauty the artifacts, and in Achilles armor in particular in Ch?. Before commencing one-to-one combat participants list their past honors and victories and famous ancestors, to display to their opponents their worth. The warriors in the Iliad share common value system that is unwritten, but mutually understood. Group activities allow warriors to confirm their worth. Men who do not fight in the Iliad are considered to have little value to society and consequently have little social standing and are given little attention in the book. Old men who cannot fight do to their age are also looked down upon, and surprising given very little reverence for their wisdom as in other Homeric epics such as the Odyssey. Old men who were once great warriors do, however, command more in terms of respect, but ultimately they are still second to the presently able-bodied warrior.

The precedence of the warrior culture is evident when.

Behavior which is considered to be bad and unbecoming are fleeing battle, and other variations of the theme of losing face. The avoidance of shame appears to be a preoccupance, and will be carried out to such a degree that sometimes death is preferable to it, as in when Hektor chooses to remain outside the walls of Troy and face Achilles, even though he is very certain he will die.

In the Iliad there is no such relationship between the gods and humans as there is in Genesis. Although the gods are also presumably all-powerful, there are many deities, and each one appears to have different agendas. Their aim is not to protect the humans as such, nor is it to lead or teach them, but it seems as if the gods enjoy manipulating humans for their own pleasure. Thus any traits that are shown by the gods are not important it does not represent the ideal of how the gods want humans to be.

In Genesis, the definition of the ideal human being can be easily summarized as he or she who resembles god. Since man is mad in the image of god and god wants people to be like him, then presumably gods picture of goodness in humans is resemblance of himself. From this it can be said that in Genesis, the determination of what constitutes the ideal human being is entirely with god. So what god desires humans to be like is the model of human excellence.

God seems to reward other kinds of actions; he gave Abraham a son because of his kindness to strangers, spared Lot because of his hospitality, and came to Josephs aid because he showed himself worthy by his chastity and magnanimity.

Bad human traits in Genesis are synonymous with sin. All sins are bad in the eyes of god, and so whatever constitutes a sin is also a undesirable human quality, and is punished appropriately. The first sin was that of Adam and the woman eating the Forbidden fruit disobedience, doing against the will of god, lack of faith in god, impiety.

The serpent showed cleverness and maliciousness, but because of the way he used his intelligence for evil, he is punished and characterized as bad. In contrast to Meno where wisdom or cleverness, or agility of the mine - whatever one calls it- is valued as an admirable trait.In Meno.Good initially HE defined as being good at something which is valued by society, so HE depends on what society values/ (ie quote 70b.-argument of virtue differing for man, woman, child (71e.-is X a virtue or virtue.Justice, moderation, courage, munificenc.Ba.

Traits which are common to all three texts appear to be those to do with human kindness and magnanimity towards each other. In the Iliad pity for a heavily wounded warrior is shown by Achilles. In Genesis god favors ? for his hospitality towards strangers and god himself spares Lot out of his own mercy. In Meno there is no direct mention of the desirable trait of human compassion, although appropriate behavior in the form of justice or fairness is mentioned.

The idea of the perfect human would not be complete without mention of human capability and skill. In the Iliad the emphasis is on skill and strength in battle, the ability to conquer ones foes. In Meno the differing social situation here places importance on being able to manage public affairs and in so doing to benefit his friends and harm his enemies and to be careful that no harm come to himself (Meno 71.e)..

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Emma to Clueless - a transformation

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If viewed independently, Clueless appears to be a stereotypical teenpic, not encompassing any obvious depth. However, if examined in relation to Austen's Emma, Clueless can be seen in a new dimension. That is, a successful transformation of Emma, in terms of re-presenting "traditional" themes. On the other hand, this success is somewhat undermined by Heckerling's use of language, characterization and her blatant trivialization of Emma's thematic and plot intricacies. All of these factors, whether enhancing or devaluing to the original Emma, contribute to portraying the majority of aspects (such as characters, themes, plot, setting and style) in a new context; that is from Austen's slow pace society the quick paced life of the 10s teenager, thus confirming that Clueless should continue to be studied in schools, though only in conjunction with Austen's Emma (to show the transformation clearly).A film text uses both visual and aural techniques in developing characters and establishing themes. Combining these techniques allows the audience to distinguish deeper meanings, i.e. reading between the lines, as the viewing material is consistently interesting and relevant, rather than mundane or monotonous. The tone of the actors voice, with a dramatic roll of the eyes, quickly express a character's feelings, which words would take up to a few paragraphs to depict. The key factor in transforming Clueless from old fashioned to updated "reality" is this alteration of speed between the texts..Emma is a four and a half hundred-page novel that takes at least a couple of weeks to read, mainly due to the considerable length of time devoted to establishing characters, setting and plot. Heckerling embraces the fast pace lifestyle of teenagers and uses it to gain audience attention when the film begins. The loud music along with quick changing, oblique camera angles establish the characters, their activities and their carefree attitude to life. Small conversations can take minutes to read and hours to compose but to hold audience attention they need to be short, sweet and humorous. This is achieved in Clueless as conversations last only seconds allowing the plot to keep moving.In transforming a text, language to a certain extent must be altered to suit the times. Austen uses typical nineteenth century phrases such as "she would detach her from bad acquaintance, and introduce her into good society". The equivalent quote in Clueless is "Ooh, Project!" By altering the language and decreasing the spoken text, Heckerling creates a relatable text, one that is so easily understood and absorbed by a modern audience, that it degrades the eloquence of the original Emma.

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Clueless is a successful transformation of the traditional values displayed in Emma. Both texts display dominant links to the following theme.•Social status is reliant on personal relationships, wealth and imag.•Finding a successful romance is the "happy ending.•A child's personal development relies on successful parental inpu.In relation to Emma, Clueless also shows how time (and social/cultural changes) has dissolved the past intimacies between family members. All of these themes are apparent in the relationships between and the behaviour of the main characters in each text.Both texts end with what the audience considers a happy ending; Josh and Cher begin a "serious" relationship together, whilst Mr. Knightley and Emma proclaim their vows through marriage. This particular traditional value is altered to suit the times, but still prevails as on of the dominant themes of both texts. As the characters of Clueless are only in their late teens, it is inappropriate for them to get married, thus Heckerling adapts the plot so a marriage still occurs, between Miss Guiest and Mr. Hall, and the audience sees that Cher and Josh, Tai and Trevor and Dion and Murray are committed to each other (mainly seen through the girl's incoherent babblings concerning their future wedding plans and motifs).Social status is reliant on personal relationships, wealth and image is another value present in both texts, and is represented in Clueless. In Emma, Harriet persuaded by Emma's delusions that she should aim to marry someone of higher class (i.e. Mr. Elton) and not the man she is unknowingly in love with (i.e. Mr. Martin). The same incident is transposed to Clueless. When Tai (Brittany Murphy) expresses an interest in Travis (Breckin Meyer) - a loadie Cher (Alicia Silverstone) quickly uses her influence "as someone [one month] older" to guide Tai away from him - as "no respectable girl actually dates them [loadies]". Parallel to Emma, Cher persuades herself and Tai, that Elton is a much more suitable suitor, especially once Tai has debuted as a girl of (dubious) high social status. Elton's rejection of Tai as a suitable'match' enforces the social barriers created by wealth and image. Elton replies to Cher's confusion - "Don't you know who my father is?!" A similar reply is received from Mr. Elton's who condescendingly explains, "Everyone has their level".Though both Emma and Cher influence the status of Harriet and Tai greatly, the creation of this high status through image is enforced in only Clueless. The high consumer demand and instant gratification levels produced throughout the highly economical and technological advancements of the 180's left a severe aftermath. That is a 0's world reliant on personal image and possessions for grading one's self, as opposed to the "traditional" values of behavioural attributes and personal talents. Cher demands only most apt clothes and matching accessories, emphasized by her "outfit management" software. Even when Cher is held at gunpoint, she fails to recognise the gravity of the situation, as she is occupied with the inevitability of ruining her "totally important designer" dress. Cher's emotional maintenance techniques consist of regular trips to the mall, never leaving empty handed. Furthermore, when Tai is introduced to Cher's P.E. class, someone mutters; "She could be a farmer in those clothes". This is both a play on Mr. Robert Martin (the farmer) and an indication that her taste in attire is not appropriate for her to reside among the high-level socialites, a factor which dominates Dion and Cher's "make-over" efforts..The final dominant theme of both texts, is the belief that a child's personal development relies on successful parental input. The audience views both Emma and Cher as spoiled and sheltered individuals, lacking discipline and moral dignity. Both of their mothers died during Emma/Cher's early childhood and perhaps not as a direct result, live with an overindulgent father. Cher's modern situation, means that Emma's mentally vacant father is transformed into a disciplinary and morally vacant father. (For example he is ecstatic when Cher's reveal that she argues her way from a C to a B-minus, as his position as a litigator relies on such personal traits...

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Health and Nutrition

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Nutrition is the relationship of foods to the health of the human body ..Proper nutrition means that you are receiving enough foods and supplements for.the body to function at optimal capacity. It is important to remember that no.single nutrient or activity can maintain optimal health and well being, although.

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it has been proven that some nutrients are more important than others. All of.the nutrients are necessary in different amounts along with exercise to maintain.proper health..There are six main types of nutrients used to maintain body health..They are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water . They.all must be in balance for the body to function properly. There are also five.major food groups. The groups are fats and oils, fruits and vegetables, dairy.products, grains, and meats..Exercise is also an important part of nutrition. Exercise helps tone.and maintain muscle tissue and ensure that the bodys organs stay in good.condition. Healthy eating without exercise will not result in good nutrition.and a healthy body - neither will exercise without nutrition. The most.important thing about exercise is that it be practiced regularly and that it be.practiced in accompaniment with a healthy diet. It is also desirable to.practice more that one sport as different sports exercise different areas of the.body. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the sources of energy for the body..The contained energy is expressed in calories. There are calories per gram in.fat and there are about 4 calories per gram in proteins and carbohydrates ..Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for the body. This energy is mostly.used for muscle movement and digestion of food. Some sources of carbohydrates.are grains, fruits, vegetables, and anything else that grows out of the ground..The energy in carbohydrates is almost instantly digested. This results in a.quick rise in blood sugar which is soon followed by a drop in blood sugar which.is interpreted by the body as a craving for more sugars. This sugar low may.also result in fatigue, dizziness, nervousness, and headache. However, not all.carbohydrates do this. Most fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains are.digested more slowly. Fats, which are lipids, are the source of energy that is.the most concentrated. Fats produce more that twice the amount of energy that.is in carbohydrates or proteins. Besides having a high concentration of energy,.fat acts as a carrier for the fat soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K. Also, by.helping in the absorption of vitamin D, fats help make calcium available to.various body tissues, in particular, the bones and teeth. Another function of.fat is to convert carotene to vitamin A. Fat also helps keep organs in place by.surrounding them in a layer of fat. Fat also surrounds the body in a layer that.preserves body temperature and keeps us warm. One other function of fat is to.slow the production of hydrochloric acid thereby slowing down digestion and.making food last longer. Some sources of fats are meats and nuts as well as.just plain oils and fats. Proteins, besides water, are the most plentiful.substance in the body. Protein is also one of the most important element for.the health of the body. Protein is the major source of building material in the.body and is important in the development and growth of all body tissues..Protein is also needed for the formation of all hormones. It also helps.regulate the bodys water balance. When proteins are digested they are broken.down into simpler sections called amino acids. However, not all proteins will.contain all the necessary amino acids. Most meat and dairy products contain all.necessary amino acids in their proteins. Proteins are available from both.plants and animals. However, Animal proteins are more complete and thus.desirable. Knowledge of the nutrients and their function is essential to.understanding the importance of good nutrition. As mentioned above, there are.six nutrients. All vitamins are organic food substances that are found only in.living things, plants and animals . It is believed that there are about twenty.substances that are active as vitamins in human nutrition . Every vitamin is.essential to the proper growth and development of the body. With a few.exceptions, the body cannot make vitamins and must be supplied with them..Vitamins contain no energy but are important as enzymes which help speed up.nearly all metabolic functions. Also, vitamins are not building components of.body tissues, but aid in the construction of these tissues. It is impossible to.reliably determine the vitamin requirements of an individual because of.differences in age, sex, body size, genetic makeup, and activity. A good source.of a recommendation is the RDA. The RDA makes its recommendations based on.studies of consumption of the given nutrient. On the recommendation it will.usually specify what size diet the recommendation is based on, for example, a.two thousand calorie per day diet. It is harmless to ingest excess of most.vitamins. However, some vitamins are toxic in large amounts. Vitamin A is a fat.soluble vitamin which is only available in two forms. Pre-formed, which is.found in animal tissue. The other is carotene, which can be converted into.Vitamin A by animals . Carotene is found in easily found in carrots as well as.other vegetables . Vitamin A is important to the growth and repair of body.tissues and helps maintain a smooth, soft, and disease free skin. It also helps.protect the mucus membranes of the mouth, nose, throat, and lungs which reduces.the chance of infection. Another function is helping mucus membranes combat the.effects of air pollutants. Vitamin A also protects the soft lining of all the.digestive tract. Another function of vitamin A is to aid in the secretion of.gastric juices. The B complex vitamins have many known sub-types, but they all.are water soluble vitamins. The B vitamins can be cultivated from a variety of.bacteria, yeast, fungi, or molds . They are active in the body by helping the.body convert carbohydrates into glucose, a form of sugar. B vitamins are also.vital in the metabolism of proteins and fats. They are also the single most.important element in the health of the nerves. B vitamins are also essential.for the maintenance of the gastrointestinal tract, the health of the skin, hair,.eyes, mouth, liver, and muscle tone. The intestine contain a bacteria that.produces vitamin b but milk-free diets, and taking sulfonamides or antibiotics.can destroy these bacteria . Whole grains contain high concentrations of B.complex vitamins. Also, enriched bread and cereal products contain high.concentrations of B vitamins due to a governmental intervention of the whole.food group to ensure that the nation was getting enough B vitamins Vitamin C,.also known as ascorbic acid, is a water soluble vitamin. It is sensitive to.oxygen and is the least stable of all vitamins . One primary function of.vitamin C is to maintain collagen, a protein necessary for the formation of skin,.ligaments, and bones. Vitamin C also plays a role in healing of burns and.wounds because it aids the formation of scar tissue. It also helps form red.blood cells and prevent hemorrhaging. Another function is to prevent the.disease, scurvy, which used to be seen in sailors because of their lack of.vitamin C in their diet. This was corrected by issuing each sailor one lime per.day which supplied citric acid, a source of vitamin C. Other sources include.broccoli, Brussels sprouts, Strawberries, Oranges, and grapefruits . Vitamin E.is a fat soluble vitamin which is made up of a group of compounds called.tocoherols. There are seven forms of it but the form known as Alpha tocoherol.is the most potent . Tocoherols occur in the highest concentrations in cold.pressed vegetable oils, all whole raw seeds and nuts, and soybeans. Vitamin E.plays an essential role in cellular respiration of all muscles, especially the.cardiac and skeletal. It makes these muscles able to function with less oxygen,.thereby increasing efficiency and stamina. It also is an antioxidant, which.prevents oxidization. This prevents saturated fatty compounds from breaking.down and combining to form toxic compounds. Minerals are nutrients that exist.in the body and in organic and inorganic combinations . There are approximately.seventeen minerals that are necessary in human nutrition . Although only about.four or five percent of the body weight is mineral matter, minerals are.important to overall mental and physical health. All of the bodys tissues and.fluids contain some amount of mineral. Minerals are necessary for proper muscle.function and many other biological reactions in the body. Minerals are also.important in the production of hormones. Another important function of minerals.is to maintain the delicate water balance of the body and to regulate the.bloods pH. Physical and emotional stress causes a strain on the bodys supply.of minerals. A mineral deficiency often results in illness, which may be.treated by the addition of the missing mineral to the diet. Calcium, a primary.mineral, is available through dairy products. In order to get all the other.minerals, one should eat protein rich foods, seeds, grains, nuts, greens, and.limited amounts of salt or salty foods. Nutrition is just one aspect of total.body health. It is important to remember that on must compliment good nutrition.with good exercise and emotional health in order to achieve complete well being..It is also important to remember that no one part of nutrition will completely.fulfill the bodys requirements for health..

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Animal testing

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Annually, millions of animals suffer and die in painful tests in order to determine the safety of cosmetics. Substances like eye shadow and soap are tested on rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, dogs, and many other animals, despite the fact that the test results do not help prevent or treat human illness or injury..Cosmetics are not required to be experimented on animals, and since non-animal alternatives exist, its difficult to understand why some companies still choose to conduct these brutal and unnecessary tests. Cosmetic companies murder millions of animals every year just to put a few more dollars into their pockets. The companies who perform these tests claim that they establish the safety of both the products and their components. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates cosmetic products, does not require animal testing in any way, shape, or form. Some of the tests used on animals are eye, toxicity, and skin irritant tests..In eye irritant tests, a liquid, flake, granule, or powdered material is placed directly into the eyes of rabbits. The animals are often immobilized in cages from which only their heads may show. They do not receive anesthesia during the tests. After placing the irritants into the rabbits eyes, scientists record the damage to the eye tissue at specific intervals over a period of seventy-two hours. The tests sometimes can last anywhere from seven, up to eighteen days. Side effects from these experiments include swollen eyelids, ulceration, bleeding, swollen irises, massive deterioration, and blindness. During the tests, rabbits eyelids are usually held open with clips. Many animals break their necks while restrained, attempting to escape..Toxicity tests, otherwise known as lethal dose or poisoning tests, record the amount of a material that will kill a percentage, sometimes even up to one-hundred percent, of a group of lab animals. In these tests, a liquid is forced into the animals stomach linings, and through holes slit in their throats. Scientists observe the animals reactions which may be convulsions, severe asthma attacks, malnutrition, rashes, boils, and bleeding from facial features. This test was developed in 17 and the testing continues until at least fifty percent of the animals die. Like eye irritant tests, lethal dose tests are unreliable and have too many variables to have an accurate result..

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Alternatives to cosmetic testing are far less expensive and more accurate. Animals obviously have different biological systems than humans, and therefore the tests cannot be as accurate as the current tests of modern day science. Some animal-free alternatives are cell and tissue cultures, corneas from eye banks, and sophisticated computer and mathematical models. Companies may also calculate a formula using ingredients already proven safe by the FDA. Most cruelty-free companies use a combination of many methods to ensure the safety of a product..Lobbying by animal welfare groups has resulted in federal, state, and local legislation severely restricting animal experimentation. Under the U.S. Animal Welfare Act, all animals used in biomedical research must be bought from vendors licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The USDA inspects laboratories where animals are used and enforces federal laws regarding treatment and care of the animals. Scientists have also taken action to prevent the abuse of the animals, in part because abused animals may not result in reliable data. The American Physiological Society, the National Institutes of Health, and many other organizations have joined together in order to lay down guidelines and rules for the use and treatment of experimental animals. Currently, there are also many universities with animal welfare committees..In a national survey conducted by the American Medical Association, seventy-five percent of Americans are against using animals in cosmetic testing. Hundreds of companies have responded by switching to cruelty-free test methods. To help put an end to animal testing, people can stop buying products that were tested on animals, call or write to these companies, or write to your congressional representative about the alternatives that currently exist..

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Hester Prynne: Puritan Victim

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Hester Prynne Puritan Victi.

In the first several chapters of The Scarlet Letter we can understand Hester Prynne to be a good but misunderstood soul. Labeled as an adulteress, she is the victim of the Puritan lifestyle. A person with many positive traits, she is treated as a terrible person for one unholy act. Far from the evil woman that some of her neighbors see, Hester is a strong, proud and loyal person who resists the worst influences of her community.

Once Hester has begun to wear the scarlet letter in public and is interrogated, she holds out against the preachers in a great display of strength. Reverend Dimmesdale is the first to try to entice her to divulge her accomplice's name. After his sweet speech brings all the listeners "into one accord of sympathy" ( 5), no one dares to think that she will not give the name of her partner. She withholds the name with determination, and even the goading calls of the crowd do not make her waver. Probably the greatest example of her strength and perseverance is when the clergyman gives a discourse on sin, continuously making references to the letter. Despite all of these pressures, she does not give in to any of the temptations that challenge her throughout her punishment.

Hester's loyalty is most revealed when Roger Chillingsworth demands that she tell him her partner's name. Trying to convince her that this unknown man has wronged them both, he asks her for his name so that they may both get revenge upon him. After already enduring all she thought she could handle during her display, this request challenges Hester nearly to the point of conceding,but her sense of loyalty rejuvenates her moral resistance. She prevails and keeps his secret, forcing her husband to seek the man by himself. Even though her partner is probably destined to be caught, either by the authorities or by Roger Chillingsworth, Hester's loyalty makes her refuse to be responsible for his capture.

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Strong and loyal, hester is also very proud. As she emerges from the prison, the most contemptuous women of the town are waiting for her. At first she tries to cover up her mark of sin, but then she realizes that attempting to hide it would only bring on more shame, so she reveals to everyone the letter sewn into her clothes. She has turned what was supposed to be an ugly label into a beautifully embroidered symbol. The letter already upsets her critics with its lavish anti-Puritan design, and it shows her rebellion against her punishment. She refuses to accept the shame as intended, and instead she bears her child and the scarlet letter proudly.

Overall, Hester is portrayed as a noble woman. We can see that although she is branded by the puritans as despicable, she is really a beautiful person. Hester has a powerful personality, and is loyal to her own conscience and to the father of her child. She knows that her actions were wrong, but her pride keeps her from accepting the humiliation that the Puritan community tries to heap upon her. Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorn.

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Manifest Destiny and Puerto Rico

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In elementary school, I remember learning the concept of Manifest Destiny was that the US was, in a way, "destined" to possess and inhabit all of the land from Maine to Florida to California- "from sea to shining sea". I never considered the implications of the concept of Manifest Destiny on islands in the Caribbean, until now. Also, I was unaware of the total picture that Manifest Destiny encompasses; simply owning and inhabiting the land is not the primary principle. In the reading on pages 77 and 78, the goal is outlined as, "…North America is destined to go on until every land on the earth's surface that is not already the seat of an old civilization shall become English in its language, in its religion, in its political habits and traditions…".

I find this statement ironic because the very things that the English were escaping from in England by establishing a colony in the US are the very things they plan to impose on these other countries. I suppose "impose" may be too light of a word, because Josiah Strong likens this expansion and "competition of races" to that of survival of the fittest. To me, it sounds more like a business venture and Puerto Rico is some sort of real estate property that could not be obtained until the public was convinced that "we need them.".

This somewhat exemplifies the imperialistic attitude that the US is inherently better and knows better than any other governing system. It was to no one else's but our benefit that the US used Puerto Rico as a "pawn in this power struggle". Although sensationalist stories abounded in the news about atrocities in the Caribbean, the US presented this expansion more so as a liberation rather than a takeover. The irony in this, however, is that Puerto Rico had just been granted a new autonomous government- the last thing that Puerto Rico needed was a "liberation.".

Although, again this topic relates back to how the US viewed liberation. If liberation was in the religious sense, then I suppose some clergy in that day would've considered Puerto Rico as needing liberation because as a whole, they may not have been practicing the Anglo-Saxon religion. If liberation refers to language, and granting them the "privilege" to speak English, then some would have argued they were in need of liberation..

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Basically, aside from indoctrinating a culture with US beliefs the US needed Puerto Rico as a key location for military related business. As the text referred to, no consideration was paid to the possibility that this "key piece of land" had its own people, its own culture, etc. The US had its intentions in mind, its "destiny" and nothing could get in the way of obtaining it as the US flexed its muscles...

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Divorce and children

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In the coming future, the increasing rate of Divorce will affect life style of its family members, especially kids both mentally and psychologically. The most frequent topics discussed over the last few decades has been, "Is divorce harmful for children", but I would like to suggest that it is time to examine a even more important issue which is- " what factors in divorcing families contribute to the difficulties children have to face throughout their life".Introduction & Revie..Over the past two decades, more than one million children each year have experienced a family divorce, and the proportion of children affected by divorce is expected to grow substantially in this century. Most of these children's will experience significant changes in their living arrangements and life styles

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The research is basically going to reflect on clear impact of divorce on children. It will show evident that in many cases divorce dramatically changes the way a child perceives the world and themselves. Through my investigation in this assignment, it will give me possible answers to most of my questions.The research on this topic will highlight some of the main common issues which child deals after the separation of their parents, after a divorce. Most of the times children goes through many psychological and mental changes after divorce, as the result he or she will go through many disorder like, they will start feeling lonely and depressed.It some times becomes really very hard for children to cope with their lives after divorce. Divorce is a different experience for children and adults because the children lose something valuable to their future. Many Parents believe that what is good for the parents will be good for the children. Although many children can experience psychological problems, loneliness, and may experience anger, in reality they are not yet ready to prepare for divorce; and as a result many children refuse to accept the reality of the divorce and start to hate themselves, thinking they are the cause of divorce. Parents who are getting divorce are sometimes often concerned about the effect divorce will play in their child's life, divorce can be very traumatic for children because it's the time when they need the adult in their life to give them reassurance and comfort..

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